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Smoke Your Way To Drier Nerves: Smoking As Medicine In Early Modern Europe by
It’s always amazing to learn what kinds of things passed as medicine before – and even during – the birth of modern science. In colonial times, for example, American medicine used such “cures” as the moss from a dead man’s skull – thankfully, though, the moss was applied, not to the wound, but to the weapon that caused it. And as recently as the beginning of the twentieth century, we have evidence of alcohol being prescribed to reduce asthma attacks.
One cure that may not have worked much better – but was probably a whole lot more fun to those prescribed it – is tobacco. Most of us are not used to having our doctors prescribe us a cigar, to put it mildly. But before twentieth-century methods of epidemiological study were developed, tobacco was not only often treated as medically harmless, it was intermittently recommended or even prescribed for its medicinal value.
For an example of just how much attitudes have changed, let’s pause for a moment over the figure of Jean Nicot – the Frenchman for whom nicotine was named, and who was also the first to bring the smoking of tobacco to French high society. European pleasure-smokers owe Nicot a considerable debt. Without him, Jean-Paul Sartre would never have smoked a single Gauloise, and the coffeehouse poets and existentialists of the twentieth century would have had to do something else with their hands when they weren’t gesturing wildly at each other. Jean-Paul Belmondo, the iconic smoking hero of the classic French New Wave film Breathless, would never have looked half as cool if it weren’t been for Jean Nicot. And yet Nicot recommended smoking tobacco not for its cosmetic and dramatic value, nor for its taste – he recommended it as a medicine!
As the French ambassador to the Portuguese court, Nicot observed Portuguese nationals enjoying the new all-purpose medical remedy that had come to that country earlier in the sixteenth century, in all likelihood from Spain, who had in turn stolen the idea from the native inhabitants of South America, the “New World.” After all, the rolling and smoking of tobacco in a tube-shaped receptacle was almost the first thing that Columbus had learned from the indigenous peoples of the Americas. Two members of his first expedition noticed the custom during an inland journey through modern-day Cuba on November 6, 1492.
And when smoking made the jump from Cuba to Spain, it then spread throughout Europe, riding the coattails of – believe it or not – its supposed medicinal value, setting a pattern that several other commodities introduced to Europe via colonialism would follow: tea, coffee, certain kinds of alcohol, and others were also initially lauded for their health benefits.
It was in Shakespeare’s England that smoking first became broadly popular – the 1580s and 1590s. In 1577 a Spanish treatise by Nicolas Monardes was rendered into English. This work, exuberantly titled Joyfull Newes out of the new founde worlde, told English readers about a wonderful new import from the Americas, tobacco, which could reduce or alleviate the symptoms of another thing then new to England: syphilis.
After Monardes, the idea became a sort of commonplace. Giles Everard thought tobacco might be, literally, a cure-all. Much of this enthusiasm came from the dominant medieval medical theory: the idea of the humors. According to this doctrine, received from the ancient Greeks, there were four elements whose balance or imbalance among each other determined the body’s health: dryness, heat, wetness, and coldness. You had to keep them in balance. It was thought, then, that smoking could help “dry out” individuals suffering from a dominance of the cool and wet humors (which made the body weak and effeminate).
People also thought, in advance of tobacco’s arrival in England, that breathing in smoke – in and of itself – was good for you. Patients in early modern England would breathe in smoke from cinnabar and amber, among many other chemicals. People even breathed in the fumes from red arsenic. Smoke from all sorts of things efficiently delivered good-for-you chemicals to sick patients, so why not tobacco?
Eventually, this medical consensus in favor of tobacco was undone – partly because of the advance of medical science, but also for reasons that had nothing to do with science. As tobacco went from being an elite pleasure to one affordable by regular folks – the “masses” that European political thought always viewed with suspicion and disdain – it became correspondingly less, shall we say, cool. By the early seventeenth century, King James I and other influential polemicists were blaming it for making Britons lazy, pleasure-seeking, and unable to work. Tobacco’s prestige has vacillated ever since.
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Article Source: http://www.earticlesonline.com/Article/Smoke-Your-Way-To-Drier-Nerves–Smoking-As-Medicine-In-Early-Modern-Europe/410276
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Of the four voyages Columbus made to America, the first is the most documented. Though a summary of the journal kept by Columbus, its rendering by Las Casas (c.1484-1566) is faithful and often speaks through the explorer’s own words giving detailed directions and distances and it is widely known by scholars to be authentic. But therein lies a problem.
To anyone who makes the effort to actually follow that famous journal on a computer using satellite imagery, something very strange comes to light. Not to put too fine a point on it, the journal is an incomprehensible muddle. From the very first island he comes to upon his arrival in the Americas, none of the distances, descriptions or directions match the lay of the land and sea.
Again, anyone with a computer can verify this. Whatever the journal is describing, it is not the Caribbean. This is the reason that no one knows what island he first arrived at – in spite of centuries of the concentrated effort of brilliant men to determine that simple fact. Even the most inexperienced sailor would be able to judge distances, give descriptions, at the very least to accurately record which way the prevailing winds blow and yet Columbus fails miserably at all of these in his journal
Now here is the kicker – S E Morison, who, besides being an admiral in the US Navy, was a professor of history at Harvard, a Pulitzer Prize winning author – and not for any book but for the book he wrote about that very voyage along with the other 3 – titled Admiral of the Ocean Sea – this respected historian and seaman assures us that the journal most certainly does make sense. In fact, he brings all his authority to bear to impress on the reader the truth of this assertion.
After huffing and puffing quite extensively, he proceeds to offer the most ridiculous arguments to justify the journal – He pulls what he calls ‘land leagues’ as opposed to ‘sea leagues” out of a hat for example, to explain why the distances don’t remotely correspond to reality. These are purely an invention of the author, they absolutely do not exist anywhere else but in Morison’s imagination and besides, it works only once, for one harbor and for nothing else.
Eventually, Morison simply ignores the journal altogether and turns, instead, to the book called ‘”The Life of the Admiral Christopher Columbus by his son Ferdinand’. Unfortunately, it is now a well known fact that the book is mostly if not completely spurious.
To anybody who is looking for some kind of rationality to this bizarre situation, it is frustrating beyond expression. How can it be that the man considered a hero for having had the vision, the daring, the know how to cross the Atlantic, can be such an incompetent when it comes to describing what he discovered.
How can it be that a US Navy admiral etc. etc. swears to a lie that, though it would have been almost impossible to expose at the time, a child can easily do so now.
Writing in 1941, Morison’s mission was to clear up the ‘myths’ about Columbus. Failure was not an option. Everybody was tired of the bickering and wild theories making the rounds after the 1892 quarter centenary. That anniversary focused a lot of attention on Columbus and his voyage and that is when the trouble started.. Morison was, you could say, awarded the Pulitzer Prize because of this fact. Academics and ordinary people alike were so relieved the doubts and confusion could at last be put to rest.
Inadequate answers mean the questions are back to haunt us.
The truth of this interesting story will be found – It is worth noting that the epitaph on Columbus’s tomb in Seville reads, in Latin “Non confundar in aeternam” translated, as it is traditionally used in psalms “Let me never be confounded” – or perhaps more accurately “I will not be confused forever” many new findings are coming out of the research done by investigators who will not be ignored and they are forcing a more rigorous look at a wider range of evidence, including a fresh look at the journal. The history that is coming to light is more complicated than the current version – but it does make sense. By giving our children the true story, we can protect them from this seemingly never ending controversy..
